ホーム＜地球科学一般｜地球環境学＜

物質循環とは（Geochemical Cycle）

最終更新日：2016年11月30日

• 『リンク』は別ページへ移動
• 硫黄化学種はこちらを参照。
• 窒素は『窒素』のページを参照。
• リンは『リン』のページを参照。
• 水循環は『河川について』のページも参照。
• 水圏は『水圏について』のページを参照。
• 気圏は『気圏について』のページを参照。
• 地圏は『地圏について』のページを参照。
• 生物圏は『生物圏について』のページを参照。
• 地球構成物質の化学組成は『地球構成物質の化学組成』のページを参照。
• 安定同位体比は『安定同位体地球化学』のページを参照。
• 資源の流れは『マテリアルフローについて』のページを参照。
• エネルギーフローは『エネルギーフローについて』のページを参照。
• 自然のエネルギーフローは『気候変動とは』のページを参照。
• 環境負荷物質は『環境負荷物質』のページを参照。
• 地球規模モデルおよび将来予測シナリオは『地球観測とは』のページを参照。
• 地質年代は『年代測定法とは』のページを参照。

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• 文献は『論文リスト（物質循環）』のページを参照。

• 全般の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

【2011】

• 科研費特定領域研究「海洋表層・大気下層間の物質循環リンケージ」（HP）によ『大気海洋物質循環』から
  

  科研費特定領域研究「海洋表層・大気下層間の物質循環リンケージ」による（2006〜2011年）大気海洋物質循環から

【1992】

• 鹿園（1992）による〔『地球システム科学入門』（45-48p）から〕【見る→】

• 水循環の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

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• 水資源は『水資源』のページを参照。
• 水は『水について』のページを参照。
• 水圏は『水圏について』のページを参照。
  水収支は『水圏について』のページの『水収支／水循環』を参照。

【2015】

• 近藤（HP/2015/6）による『水文学�T（Hydrology-�T）』から
  

  水の量(榧根勇著「水と気象」、朝倉書店）
  近藤（HP/2015/6）による『水文学�T（Hydrology-�T）』から

• USGS（HP/2015/6）による『The Water Cycle』から
  

  The Water Cycle Atmosphere ・ Condensation ・ Evaporation ・ Evapotranspiration ・ Freshwater storage Groundwater flow ・ Groundwater storage ・ Ice and snow ・ Infiltration ・ Oceans Precipitation ・ Runoff ・ Snowmelt ・ Springs ・ Streamflow ・ Sublimation	Illustration by John M. Evans USGS 　　翻訳： Yasushi Suzuki and Masayuki Kurechi, Japanese Association for Wild Geese Protection
  Where is Earth's Water?	One Estimate of Global Water Distribution (Numbers are rounded) Water source Water volume Percent of freshwater Percent of total water in cubic miles in cubic kilometers Oceans, Seas, & Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5 Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow 5,773,000 24,064,000 68.7 1.74 Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 -- 1.69 Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76 Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 -- 0.93 Ground Ice & Permafrost 71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022 Lakes 42,320 176,400 -- 0.013 Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007 Saline 20,490 85,400 -- 0.006 Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001 Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001 Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008 Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002 Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001 Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).
  USGS（HP/2015/6）による『The Water Cycle』から

【2007】

• 沖・鼎（2007）による『地球表層の水循環 ・水収支と世界の淡水資源の現状および今世紀の展望』から
  

  沖・鼎（2007）による『地球表層の水循環 ・水収支と世界の淡水資源の現状および今世紀の展望』から

【1999】

• 安成（1999）による〔『水・物質循環系の変化』（1-2p）から〕【見る→】

【1996】

• 住（1996）による〔『地球システム科学』（119-122p）から〕【見る→】

【1995】

• 加藤（1995）による〔『地球の水圏−海洋と陸水』（88-94p）から〕【見る→】

• 炭素循環の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

【2012】

• 藤岡（2012）による『CCSの現状と未来』から
  

  藤岡（2012）による『CCSの現状と未来』から

【2011】

• 増田（HP/2011/6）による『増田耕一によるCO2濃度モデル�F』から
  

  図7.3。 1990年代の全球の炭素循環。主要なフラックス(流量)を、「GtC/yr」 [つまり年あたり炭素としてのギガトン= 109 t = 1012 kg = 1015 g] を単位として示す。そのうち、工業化前の「自然」のフラックスを黒で、「人為起源の」フラックスを赤で示す。 [また、主要な貯留量を「GtC」つまり炭素ギガトンを単位として示す。] (Sarmiento and Gruber 2006をもとにし部分変更。貯留の大きさについてはSabineほか(2004a)によって変更。)

  [図の説明: IPCC第4次第1部会報告書(Solomonほか, 2007)の英語から増田が仮に訳したもの。ただし角かっこ内は増田による補足。] [(2010-03-08 補足) ここで「人為起源の」フラックスとは、「自然」の状態からの量の差を示すものであり、人為起源の炭素を別に数えているわけではない。] 陸からの総損失 -39 GtCは、化石燃料(fossil fuels)からの排出量の累積値から、大気中の増加量と、海への蓄積とをひくことによって推算されたものである。 「植生、土壌、枯死物」(vegetation, soil & detritus)の部分の損失 -140 GtCは、土地利用変化(land use change)による排出量の累積値(Houghton, 2003)を表わし、同時に陸上生態系への[累積]吸収 101 GtCがあることを想定している。 (根拠はSabineほかの文献だが、そこで示されているのは、前者は -140から-80 GtC、後者は 61から141 GtCという幅をもった形でであり、そのほかの不確かさは彼らの表1に示されている。) 大気との間の人為起源の正味交換量は[IPCC第4次第1部会報告書の] 表7.1の第5列「AR4」に示されたものである。 総計されたフラックス値は一般に±20%以上の不確かさをもつが、川(rivers)による輸送、風化(weathering)、海底への堆積などの項の見積もられた値はGtC/yrの小数点以下の値であるため、これらを含む収支を全体として合わせるために多めの桁数をとっている項もある。「GPP」は(陸上生態系の) 1年間の総一次生産量である。 [Respirationは呼吸である。] 大気(atmosphere)中の炭素貯留量と1750年から累積されたフラックス値は、 1994年末現在のものである。 [注意] 炭素量 12 gが、二酸化炭素量 44 gに対応する。

  増田（HP/2011/6）による『増田耕一によるCO2濃度モデル�F』から

【2010】

• ウィキペディア（HP）による『炭素循環』から
  

  炭素循環の概念図。黒の数値はそれぞれのリザーバーに存在する炭素量、青の数値はリザーバー間での年間の炭素の移動量。単位はギガt（10億トン） 〔フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』の中の『炭素循環』から〕

• The Woods Hole Research Center（HP）による『Global Carbon Cycle』から
  

  		The Missing Carbon Sink For the decade of the 1990s, the global carbon cycle can be summarized as follows (units are PgC. - One Pg [petagram]=one billion metric tonnes=1000 x one billion kg ): Atmospheric increase ＝ Emissions from fossil fuels ＋ Net emissions from changes in land use − Oceanic uptake − Missing carbon sink 3.2 (±0.2) ＝ 6.3 (±0.4) ＋ 2.2 (±0.8) − 2.4 (±0.7) − 2.9 (±1.1)
  〔The Woods Hole Research Centerの中の『Global Carbon Cycle』から〕

【2008】

• 永田・宮島（編）（2008）による『流域環境評価と安定同位体』（189p）から〕
  

  表4-5-1　環境水（淡水）中の各態有機炭素濃度の平均値と、溶存態有機炭素（DOC）と懸濁態有機炭素（POC）の比

  	全有機炭素（TOC） （mg-1）	溶存態有機炭素（DOC） （mg-1）	懸濁態有機炭素（POC） （mg-1）	DOC：POC
  地下水	0.7	0.65	0.05	13：1
  降水	1.1	1.0	0.1	10：1
  貧栄養湖	2.2	2.0	0.2	10：1
  河川	7.0	5.0	2.0	3：1
  富栄養湖	12.0	10.3	1.7	6：1
  湿地−低湿地	17.0	15.3	1.7	9：1
  高層湿原	33.0	30.3	2.7	11：1

【2007】

• 環境省による『平成19年版環境・循環型社会白書』の『第2章　地球温暖化と生物多様性 第1節　地球の営みと生物多様性』から
  

  図2-1-2　炭素循環 環境省による『平成19年版環境・循環型社会白書』の『第2章　地球温暖化と生物多様性 第1節　地球の営みと生物多様性』から

【2004】

• Lal(2004)による〔『Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food security』（1623p）から〕【見る→】
• Morisada et al.(2004)による〔『Organic carbon stock in forest soils in Japan』（21p）から〕【見る→】

【2000】

• Robert et al. (Eds.)(2000)による〔『Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry. 2000 Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change』（4p）から〕（植生及び深さ1mまでの土壌炭素プール中の地球規模炭素貯蔵量）【見る→】

【1996】

• 田近（1996）による〔『地球システム科学』（27-32p）から〕【見る→】

【1992】

• 鹿園（1992）による〔『地球システム科学入門』（38-42p）から〕【見る→】

【1990】

• 茅根（1990）による〔『地球規模のCO2循環におけるサンゴ礁の役割』（11-13p）から〕【見る→】

【1979】

• ホランド（1979）による〔『大気・河川・海洋の化学−環境科学特論−』（261p）から〕【見る→】

• 窒素循環の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

【2010】

• Canfield et al.(2010)による『The Evolution and Future of Earth's Nitrogen Cycle』から
  

  Fig. 1. The major biological nitrogen transformation pathways are linked by their associated enzymes [adapted from (63)]. Genes encoding enzymes that conduct the important transformations include those for various nitrate reductases (nas, euk-nr, narG, napA), nitrite reductases (nir, nrf), nitric oxide reductase (norB), nitrous oxide reductase (nosZ), nitrogenase (nif), ammonium monooxygenase (amo), hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (hao), nitrite oxidoreductase (nxr), and hydrazine hydrolase (hh).	Fig. 2. The size of nitrogen reservoirs on Earth is highly variable. (44, 64.67). Fig. 4. Rates of nitrogen flux in the modern nitrogen cycle depend on the efficiency of the transformations between reservoirs. Arrow size reflects relative size of the flux. The dark brown arrows represent anthropogenic inputs (25, 45, 46, 52, 53, 68, 69).
  Fig. 3. The marine nitrogen cycle responded to changes to biological evolution and ocean chemistry through geologic time. The five major biological innovations are indicated by different vertical profiles of ocean chemistry. Rates of oceanic primary production (mol C year-1) also increased as they changed in response to the evolving biosphere and the oxygenation of the oceans.
  Canfield et al.(2010)による『The Evolution and Future of Earth's Nitrogen Cycle』から Aammox＝Anaerobic ammonia oxidation（嫌気性アンモニア酸化）。 【参考】Anammox　　http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anammox Anammox　　http://unit.aist.go.jp/emtech-ri/ci/e-keyword/Anammox/anammox.html

• Illinois State Water Survey　Nitrogen Cycles Project Group（HP）による『Nitrogen Cycles Project』から　
  

  Sizes of Global N Reservoir
  Reservoir/ Pool Type		Metric Tons	％ of Total
  Biosphere（生物圏）		2.8 x 1011	0.0002
  Hydrosphere（水圏）		2.3 x 1013	0.014
  Atmosphere（気圏）		3.86 x 1015	2.3
  Geosphere（地圏）		1.636 x 1017	97.7
  	Crust（地殻）	0.13 - 1.4 x 1016	0.78-8.4
  	Soils and Sediments（土壌と堆積物）	0.35 - 4.0 x 1015	0.21-2.4
  	Mantle and Core（マントルと核）	1.6 x 1017	95.6

• Smil（HP）による『Global Population and the Nitrogen Cycle』から
  

  〔Vaclav Smil氏による『Global Population and the Nitrogen Cycle』から〕

【2008】

• Gruber & Galloway（2008/1/17）による『An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle』から
  

  FIGURE 1. Depiction of the global nitrogen cycle on land and in the ocean. Major processes that transform molecular nitrogen into reactive nitrogen, and back, are shown. Also shown is the tight coupling between the nitrogen cycles on land and in the ocean with those of carbon and phosphorus. Blue fluxes denote 'natural' (unperturbed) fluxes; orange fluxes denote anthropogenic perturbation. The numbers (in Tg N per year) are values for the 1990s. Few of these flux estimates are known to better than 20%, and many have uncertainties of 50% and larger. Gruber & Galloway（2008/1/17）による『An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle』から

  
  

【2006】

• Böhlke et al.(2006)による〔『Ammonium transport and reaction in contaminated groundwater: Application of isotope tracers and isotope fractionation studies』（W05411-2p）から〕
  

  Figure 1. Biogeochemical and physical-chemical (phys.) processes affecting the speciation of nitrogen in aquatic systems. Highlighted are some of the major reactions considered in the current study, including nitrification, denitrification, anammox, and NH4+ exchange with solids. 窒素循環（nitrogen cycle） anammox：嫌気性アンモニア酸化（Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation） assimilation：同化 denitrification：脱窒、脱窒素作用 mineralization：無機化 nitrification：消化作用 nitrogen fixation：窒素固定 〔Böhlke et al.(2006)による〔『Ammonium transport and reaction in contaminated groundwater: Application of isotope tracers and isotope fractionation studies』（W05411-2p）から〕

【2004】

• 岩手県環境生活部環境保全課（2004）による『平成16 年度岩手県窒素・リン物質循環フロー調査報告書』から
  

  図 3-6 県全体における窒素循環フロー（平成14 年度、単位：×10t/年） 〔岩手県環境生活部環境保全課による（株式会社 日水コン、平成17 年3 月）『平成16 年度岩手県窒素・リン物質循環フロー調査報告書』（26p）から〕

  
  

  図 3-8 河川・湖沼・海域に対する排出負荷密度の内訳（岩手県全体、平成14 年度） 図 3-9 土壌・地下水に対する排出負荷密度の内訳（岩手県全体、平成14 年度） 〔岩手県環境生活部環境保全課による（株式会社 日水コン、平成17 年3 月）『平成16 年度岩手県窒素・リン物質循環フロー調査報告書』（28、29p）から〕

【2002】

• 中江（2002）による『有機質廃棄物の資源化−家畜ふん尿を中心として−』から
  

  〔石崎勝義氏の『長崎大学関係』の『平成14年度卒業論文』の中の中江譲二氏による『有機質廃棄物の資源化−家畜ふん尿を中心として−』から〕 出典は水谷（1997）。

【2000】

• 国土審議会調査改革部会（2000）による『「環境負荷の少ない国土・地域構造」のイメージ等に関する資料』から
  

  〔国土交通省の国土審議会調査改革部会の『第４回持続可能な国土の創造小委員会・資料』の中の『「環境負荷の少ない国土・地域構造」のイメージ等に関する資料』から〕

【1998】

• 三井情報開発（株）　総合研究所（1998）による『循環と共生を基調とした持続可能な圏域形成の手引き』の『（１）窒素循環（循環）』から
  

  図１−２　日本の窒素収支（１９９８年）と収支のアンバランスにより発生する問題群 〔三井情報開発（株）の総合研究所の『環境・資源研究サイト』の『循環と共生を基調とした持続可能な圏域形成の手引き』の中の『（１）窒素循環（循環）』から〕

【1997】

• （独）農業環境技術研究所の地球環境部　物質循環ユニット（1997）による『わが国の農業生産システムにおける近年の窒素収支』から
  

  （独）農業環境技術研究所の地球環境部の物質循環ユニットによる『わが国の農業生産システムにおける近年の窒素収支』から

• 水谷（1997）による『全窒素物質循環図（1992）』から
  

  図2　全窒素物質循環図 〔石崎勝義・三浦真慈・船水尚行・稲森悠平・大瀧雅寛・中川直子氏らによる『サステーナブルサニテーションによる流域の水・物質循環の健全化』から〕

【1979】

• ホランド（1979）による〔『大気・河川・海洋の化学−環境科学特論−』（284-285p）から〕【見る→】

• 硫黄循環の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

【1997】

• 鹿園（1997）による〔『地球システムの化学』（220-222p）から〕【見る→】

• リン循環の『リンク』はこちらを参照。

  ---

• 『リン』のページも参照。

【2005】

• 岩手県環境生活部環境保全課（2005）による『平成16 年度岩手県窒素・リン物質循環フロー調査報告書』から
  

  図 3-7 県全体におけるリン循環フロー（平成14 年度、単位：×10t/年） 〔岩手県環境生活部環境保全課による（株式会社 日水コン、平成17 年3 月）『平成16 年度岩手県窒素・リン物質循環フロー調査報告書』（27p）から〕

【1997】

• 鹿園（1997）による〔『地球システムの化学』（222-224p）から〕【見る→】
  

  表33　リンサイクル、リザーバー中のリン量、フラックス、滞留時間
  （Lerman et al., 1975）

  	リザーバー （iまたはj）	質量Mi （トンP）	フラックスFij （106トンP/y）	滞留時間 （τi＝Mi/Fij(y)）
  1	堆積物	4×1015	F12＝20	τ12＝2×108
  2	陸	2×1011	F21＝18.3 F23＝63.5 F25＝1.7	τ21＝1.09×104 τ23＝3.15×103 τ25＝1.18×105
  3	陸の生物	3×109	F32＝63.5	τ32＝47
  4	海の生物	1.38×108	F45＝998 F46＝42	τ45＝0.14 τ46＝3.3
  5	表層海水	2.71×109	F54＝1040 F56＝18	τ54＝2.6 τ56＝150
  6	深層海水	8.71×1010	F61＝1.7	τ61＝5.12×104
  7	採掘可能なリン鉱石	1×1010	F72＝12 　または F72＝12×e0.07t	τ72＝830 　または τ72＝60

• 水谷（1997）による『全リン物質循環図（1992）』から
  

  図−3　全リン物質循環図 〔長崎大学環境科学部の石崎勝義氏による『し尿は大地に戻そう』の『図−3　全リン物質循環図』から〕

• Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)（HP）による『2 C, N, P, and S Cycles: Major Reservoirs and Fluxes』から
  

  Figure 2.4 A global phosphorus cycle. Fluxes are in Tg P yr-1 and reservoirs are in Tg P. From Table 2.5 〔Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)によるSCOPE 21 The Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Their Interactionsの中の『2 C, N, P, and S Cycles: Major Reservoirs and Fluxes』から〕

  
  Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)（HP）による『16 Biogeochemical Cycles and the airsea Exchange of Aerosols』から〕
  

  Figure 16.8 The atmospheric phosphorus cycle. The numbers in parentheses are the estimated inputs of sea-water soluble phosphorus through rivers and through the atmosphere (After Graham and Duce, 1979). Reproduced by permission of Pergamon Press Ltd. 〔Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment (SCOPE)によるSCOPE 21 The Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Their Interactionsの中の『16 Biogeochemical Cycles and the airsea Exchange of Aerosols』から〕 Graham,W.F. and Duce,R.A.(1979): Atmospheric pathways of the phosphorus cycle. Geochim.Cosmochim.Acta, 43, 1195-1208.

• モデルの『リンク』はこちらを参照。
• 水関係ソフトウェアのリンクは『関連ソフトウェア』のページの『流域関係』および『地下水関係』を参照。

【2016】

• California  Watershed  Assessment  Manual（HP/2016/11/30）による『Watershed Modeling』から
  

  Watershed Modeling This page connects you to descriptions of computer models designed to address particular watershed functions or processes. It includes models for hydrology, ecology, water quality, overall watershed condition, and other topic areas. You can scroll down through the list, or "Quick Link" to a category of models in the pull-down list below. The model title is highlighted in the left-hand column, and its corresponding short description is to the right. Just click on th model title to go to the description, which is a "pdf" file. Climate CALVIN CALVIN is an economic-engineering optimization model for the entire water system of California. The model operates facilities and allocates water so as to maximize statewide agricultural and urban economic value from water use. PRMS PRMS is a distributed-parameter modeling system used for evaluating the impacts of precipitation, climate and landuse on stream flow, sedimentation and general hydrology. Decision Support ANNIE ANNIE is a Data Analysis Package that assists users with watershed modeling projects, regional regression analysis projects, and time-series data management efforts. ARSP ARSP is designed to determine optimal water allocation within a time series for virtually any water resource system. BRANCH BRANCH is a physical model used to simulate flow in single or network of channels. CALVIN CALVIN is an economic-engineering optimization model for the entire water system of California. The model operates facilities and allocates water so as to maximize statewide agricultural and urban economic value from water use. CORMIX CORMIX allows users to assess the mixing zones associated with continuous point-source discharges. CWHR CWHR is a model of potential wildlife habitat in California that aids in resource conservation, planning, and predictive modeling ECOFATE ECOFATE is a computer tool used for assessing chemical emissions from point and non-point source pollution sources for the purpose of developing Ecosystem-based risk assessments and determining potential effect on human health. EMDS EMDS is an application framework for knowledge-based decision support of ecological assessments at any geographic scale. The system integrates GIS and knowledge-based reasoning and decision modeling technologies to provide decision support for a substantial portion of the adaptive management process of ecosystem management. EMSOFT EMSOFT is a computer application that determines concentrations of contaminants in the soil over time, quantifies the transfer rate of the contaminants into the atmosphere and calculates the contaminant air concentrations. EXAMS EXAMS is a computer modeling program that evaluates the fate, transport and exposure of pesticides, industrial materials and other leaching materials from disposal sites. GEOWEPP GeoWEPP is a continuous simulation model that allows for simulation of soil and water conservation management in terms of agricultural land, range land and forested sites in small watersheds. LISEM LISEM is a soil erosion model used to simulate the hydrology and sediment transport during and after rainfall events. The model is most ideally used as a research tool. MODBRNCH MODBRNCH is a finite-difference ground-water flow model that can be used to simulate steady and unsteady flows in irregularly shaped channel systems. MOSES MOSES provides managers a tool to predict the outcomes of different management strategies associated with erosion control practices and associated remediation efforts. NetWeaver NetWeaver is a knowledge base construction, maintenance, documentation, and debugging tool to provide an efficient knowledge engineering environment for knowledge based systems development. PACFISH PACFISH monitoring modules were created to track implementation of USFS and BLM management plans for the salmon, steelhead, and bull trout listed in the Upper Columbia and Snake River Basins. Data is stored in the form of surveys using an Access Database. PHABSIM PHABSIM is a tool that offers prediction capabilities associated with flow changes such as microhabitat, physical habitat and life stage changes. RAMAS-GIS4.0 RAMAS GIS links GIS to an ecological model for use in population viability analysis with landscape-based data that incorporate changes in habitat into a meta-population and combine geographic and demographic data for risk assessments. RAMAS MULTISPECIES RAMAS Multispecies links GIS to an ecological model allowing the user to incorporate landscape data in population viability analyses, incorporate changes in habitat into a meta-population model, combine geographic and demographic data for risk assessments, and compute the Multispecies Conservation Values (MCV) across a study site. RAMAS REDLIST RAMAS Red List allows for users to characterize species a risk assessment category based on input information. RAMAS RISK CALC3.0 RAMAS Risk Calc is used to compute values based on precise or uncertain numbers. R STATISTICAL PACKAGE The R Statistical Package can be used for statistical analysis, simulation modeling and advanced data analysis. SITES SITES is a physical model used to create conservation portfolios that represent examples of all native species and plant communities. UPLAN UPLAN is an urban growth model that tests the effects of land use and transportation policies on growth. WEPP The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model is used to predict erosion on hillslopes and small watersheds. Ecological CWHR CWHR is a model of potential wildlife habitat in California that aids in resource conservation, planning, and predictive modeling PACFISH PACFISH monitoring modules were created to track implementation of USFS and BLM management plans for the salmon, steelhead, and bull trout listed in the Upper Columbia and Snake River Basins. Data is stored in the form of surveys using an Access Database. RAMAS-ECOTOX RAMAS Ecotoxicology is a data analysis package used for modeling population-level ecological risk assessments. Geomorphology BRANCH BRANCH is a physical model used to simulate flow in single or network of channels. CGAP CGAP allows for the analysis, interpretation and quantification of properties associated with open channels. ECOFATE ECOFATE is a computer tool used for assessing chemical emissions from point and non-point source pollution sources for the purpose of developing Ecosystem-based risk assessments and determining potential effect on human health. FOURPT FOURPT simulates unsteady one-dimensional flow in open channel networks and can be used for simulation complex and meandering networks and hydraulic structures. GEOWEPP GeoWEPP is a continuous simulation model that allows for simulation of soil and water conservation management in terms of agricultural land, range land and forested sites in small watersheds. HSCTM2D HSCTM2D is a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model that is used to simulate surface water flow, sediment and contaminant transport. LISEM LISEM is a soil erosion model used to simulate the hydrology and sediment transport during and after rainfall events. The model is most ideally used as a research tool. MODBRNCH MODBRNCH is a finite-difference ground-water flow model that can be used to simulate steady and unsteady flows in irregularly shaped channel systems. MOSES MOSES provides managers a tool to predict the outcomes of different management strategies associated with erosion control practices and associated remediation efforts. RIVERMORPH RiverMorph is designed to streamline time consuming tasks performed by river restoration professionals. RUSLE2 RUSLE is a physical model that can be used for assessing run-off and erosion. SEDSIZE SEDDISCH is used to compute fluvial discharge based on user preferences. SHALSTAB SHALSTAB is a physical model used for mapping the patter of shallow slope instabilities. WEPP The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model is used to predict erosion on hillslopes and small watersheds. WMS The Watershed Modeling System (WMS) is a modeling system for watershed hydrology and hydraulics. WMS is capable of automated delineation of sub-watershed boundaries and flood extent, and includes graphic display options to aid in understanding the drainage characteristics of terrain surfaces as well as several computation features. Habitat Classification CWHR CWHR is a model of potential wildlife habitat in California that aids in resource conservation, planning, and predictive modeling FUZZY CASIMIR The Fuzzy Fish Model applies fuzzy-logic methodology to flow regimes, bed flow statistics and hydraulic and morphologic criteria in order to more efficiently model fish habitat. PACFISH PACFISH monitoring modules were created to track implementation of USFS and BLM management plans for the salmon, steelhead, and bull trout listed in the Upper Columbia and Snake River Basins. Data is stored in the form of surveys using an Access Database. PATCH PATCH is a physical model that provides population viability modeling for territorial terrestrial vertebrate species. RAMAS REDLIST RAMAS Red List allows for users to characterize species a risk assessment category based on input information. SALMOD SALMOD is used to simulate the dynamics of freshwater, anadromous and resident salmonid populations. Hydrology & Water Use AIRSLUG AIRSLUG is a conceptual model used for assessing the capabilities of aquifers for storing and transmitting water by presenting the resulting values in plotted curves. ANALGWST ANALGWST can be used to predict 1, 2, and 3-dimensional solute transport in groundwater based on the findings of E.J. Wexler. ANNIE ANNIE is a Data Analysis Package that assists users with watershed modeling projects, regional regression analysis projects, and time-series data management efforts. ANSWERS-2000 Answers-2000 is a physical model that can be used for the continuous-simulation of agricultural and urban ‘Best-Management-Practices’ in terms of sediment and nutrient delivery to surface runoff, and the associated leaching of nitrogen through the root zone. AQTESTSS The AQTESTSS model allows users to analyze aquifer tests and associated ‘slug’ data through a series of spreadsheets. ARSP ARSP is designed to determine optimal water allocation within a time series for virtually any water resource system. BASINS BASINS is a physical model used for the evaluation of point and non-point source watershed pollution and TMDL modeling. BRANCH BRANCH is a physical model used to simulate flow in single or network of channels. CALVIN CALVIN is an economic-engineering optimization model for the entire water system of California. The model operates facilities and allocates water so as to maximize statewide agricultural and urban economic value from water use. CHECK-RAS CHECK-RAS is a data analysis package that allows users to evaluate the outputs from HEC-RAS to determine their reasonableness. DADFLOW DADFLOW is used for modeling and assessing stream flow based on Lagrangian methods while predicting discharge and transport velocity. DR3M DR3M is a watershed model that can be used to assess the routing of storm-water-runoff through a system / network of pipes or natural channels and is usually used to simulate small urban basins FEMWATER FEMWATER can be used to apply assimilative capacity criterion to development of wellhead protection areas and model the movement of moisture and solute transport through variably saturated porous media as required under the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments. FESWMS-2DH FESWMS-2DH simulates two-dimensional surface water flow for uses such as analyzing complicated hydraulic conditions, such as bridge crossings. FOURPT FOURPT simulates unsteady one-dimensional flow in open channel networks and can be used for simulation complex and meandering networks and hydraulic structures. GEOWEPP GeoWEPP is a continuous simulation model that allows for simulation of soil and water conservation management in terms of agricultural land, range land and forested sites in small watersheds. HEC-DSSVUE HEC-DSSVUE allows storage and retrieval ofscientific data that is typically sequential in nature. Examples include time series data, curve data, etc. HEC-GEOHMS HEC-GEOHMS permits development of hydrologic modeling inputs for HEC-HMS. HEC-GEORAS 3.1.1ARCVIEW HEC-GEORAS 3.1.1 ARCVIEW is used in preparing data for HEC-RAS 3.1.1 through ArcView 3.x. Also enables the viewing of exported results from RAS. HEC-GEORAS - ARCINFO HEC-GEORAS-ARCINFO is used to view and manipulate geospatial data for the use in HEC-RAS. HEC-HMS 2.2.2 HEC-HMS 2.2.2 is used to simulate the precipitation-runoff processes of dendritic watersheds. HEC-RAS 3.1.1 HEC-RAS allows you to perform one-dimensional steady and unsteady flow calculations. HMR52 HMR52 is a physical model used for computing precipitation for ‘Probable Maximum Storms’ and ‘Probable Maximum Precipitation’ for basins and sub-basins. HSCTM2D HSCTM2D is a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model that is used to simulate surface water flow, sediment and contaminant transport. HST3D HST3D models three-dimensional ground water flow and associated heat and solute transport. HYDROTHERM HYDROTHERM is a finite-difference model used for 3-dimensional modeling of pure-water flow and temperature. HYSEP HYSEP can be used for separating hydrographs, estimate ground water and base flows. MODBRNCH MODBRNCH is a finite-difference ground-water flow model that can be used to simulate steady and unsteady flows in irregularly shaped channel systems. MODFE MODFE was developed to help solve two-dimensional ground-water-flow problems. MODFLOW MODFLOW is used to simulate steady and unsteady flow in irregularly shaped flow and channel systems. MODFLOWP MODFLOWP is an improved version of MODFLOW which can be used to simulate steady and unsteady flow in irregularly shaped flow and channel systems while incorporating non-linear regression techniques. MODTOOLS MODTOOLS translates data from MODFLOW and MODPATH into a GIS ready format NFF3.2 NFF is a set of regression equations published for each US State, allowing mangers and decision makers to assess flood-peak discharges at gauged or un-gauged sites. PHABSIM PHABSIM is a tool that offers prediction capabilities associated with flow changes such as microhabitat, physical habitat and life stage changes. PHREEQC PHREEQC is a computer program used to perform a variety of low-temperature aqueous geochemical reactions. PRMS PRMS is a distributed-parameter modeling system used for evaluating the impacts of precipitation, climate and landuse on stream flow, sedimentation and general hydrology. PRZM3 PRZM3 is a group of models that predicts pesticide transport and transformation through the crop root and unsaturated zones of the soil. QUICK-2 QUICK-2 is a simpler version of HEC-2 or HEC-RAS that can be used to compute flood Water Surface Elevations. RASPLOT RASPLOT is used to create Flood Insurance Study (FIS) profiles based on data extracts from HEC-RAS or HEC-2. RMS RMS is used to compute water surface profiles for modeling various hydrologic features. SMS8.0 SMS is used for one, two and three dimensional finite hydrodynamic modeling associated with surface elevations and flow velocities for shallow-water flow problems. SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a river basin scale model developed to quantify the impact of land management practices in large, complex watersheds. WEPP The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model is used to predict erosion on hillslopes and small watersheds. WHAEM2000 WHAEM2000 is a US EPA analytic element model for groundwater and geohydrology designed to facilitate capture zone delineation and protection area mapping. WMS The Watershed Modeling System (WMS) is a modeling system for watershed hydrology and hydraulics. WMS is capable of automated delineation of sub-watershed boundaries and flood extent, and includes graphic display options to aid in understanding the drainage characteristics of terrain surfaces as well as several computation features. Habitat and Population Modeling CWHR CWHR is a model of potential wildlife habitat in California that aids in resource conservation, planning, and predictive modeling PATCH PATCH is a physical model that provides population viability modeling for territorial terrestrial vertebrate species. RAMAS-CAST RAMAS-CAST provides functionality for the display and statistical characterization of disease clusters. RAMAS-ECOTOX RAMAS Ecotoxicology is a data analysis package used for modeling population-level ecological risk assessments. RAMAS-GIS4.0 RAMAS GIS links GIS to an ecological model for use in population viability analysis with landscape-based data that incorporate changes in habitat into a meta-population and combine geographic and demographic data for risk assessments. RAMAS MULTISPECIES RAMAS Multispecies links GIS to an ecological model allowing the user to incorporate landscape data in population viability analyses, incorporate changes in habitat into a meta-population model, combine geographic and demographic data for risk assessments, and compute the Multispecies Conservation Values (MCV) across a study site. SALMOD SALMOD is used to simulate the dynamics of freshwater anadromous and resident salmonid populations. VORTEX VORTEX is a Population Viability Analysis model that is used to understand deterministic forces as well as genetic, environmental and genetic events on wildlife populations. Water Quality AGNPS AGNPS is a set of programs and models that allows for the prediction of non-point source pollution loading within agricultural watersheds and can be used to assist in the creation of Best Management Practices and other planning-related decisions. ANALGWST This model can be used to predict 1, 2, and 3-dimensional solute transport in groundwater based on the findings of E.J. Wexler. ANSWERS-2000 Answers-2000 is a physical model that can be used for the continuous-simulation of agricultural and urban ‘Best-Management-Practices’ in terms of sediment and nutrient delivery to surface runoff, and the associated leaching of nitrogen through the root zone. BASINS BASINS is a physical model used for the evaluation of point and non-point source watershed pollution and TMDL modeling. BATHTUB BATHTUB is a steady-state water quality model that simulates eutrophication-related water quality conditions in lakes and reservoirs. BIOMOC BIOMOC is a physical model that simulates the 2-Dimensional transport of solutes through a water system as well as biodegradation rates and microbial growth. BRANCH BRANCH is a physical model used to simulate flow in single or network of channels. CORMIX CORMIX allows users to assess the mixing zones associated with continuous point-source discharges. ECOFATE ECOFATE is a computer tool used for assessing chemical emissions from point and non-point source pollution sources for the purpose of developing Ecosystem-based risk assessments and determining potential effect on human health. EMSOFT EMSOFT is a computer application that determines concentrations of contaminants in the soil over time, quantifies the transfer rate of the contaminants into the atmosphere and calculates the contaminant air concentrations. EXAMS EXAMS is a computer modeling program that evaluates the fate, transport and exposure of pesticides, industrial materials and other leaching materials from disposal sites. GWLF GWLF is a watershed loading model developed to assess non-point source flow and sediment and nutrient loading from urban and rural watersheds. HSCTM2D HSCTM2D is a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model that is used to simulate surface water flow, sediment and contaminant transport. HSPF HSPF simulates watershed hydrology and water quality for toxic and organic pollutants and can be used to model fate and transport in one-dimensional stream channels. HST3D HST3D models three-dimensional ground water flow and associated heat and solute transport. LISEM LISEM is a soil erosion model used to simulate the hydrology and sediment transport during and after rainfall events. The model is most ideally used as a research tool. MODFLOW MODFLOW is used to simulate steady and unsteady flow in irregularly shaped flow and channel systems. MODFLOWP MODFLOWP is an improved version of MODFLOW which can be used to simulate steady and unsteady flow in irregularly shaped flow and channel systems while incorporating non-linear regression techniques. PATRIOT PATRIOT provides for the simulation of pesticide movement in unsaturated soil systems within and immediately below the plant root zone. PHREEQC PHREEQC is a computer program used to perform a variety of low-temperature aqueous geochemical reactions. SLAMM SLAMM is an urban watershed pollutant source area identification and management tool. SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a river basin scale model developed to quantify the impact of land management practices in large, complex watersheds. QUAL2EU QUAL2EU is a steady state model and planning tool used for evaluating conventional pollutants in branching streams and well mixed lakes. WASP WASP is a model used to assess contaminant fate and transport in surface waters. California  Watershed  Assessment  Manual（HP/2016/11/30）による『Watershed Modeling』から

【2015】

• Wellen et al.（2015/2/18）による『Evaluation of the Current State of Distributed Watershed Nutrient Water Quality Modeling』から
  

  Figure1. Map of model application watershed locations. Inset displays (a) bar graph of dominant landuse of each watershed, as identified by the authors of each study, and (b) area of model application watersheds in km2 (note logarithmic x-axis).	Figure 2. Histograms of (a) minimum mean monthly temperature; (b) maximum mean monthly temperature; (c); annual precipitation; and (d) the percentage of studies applying each model. Note that each study may apply more than one model.
  Figure 5. Box plots of Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency for (a) selected variables; (b) dominant landuse types; (c) models used; and (d) time steps employed. Numbers above each box indicate number of samples in each group. Variablesin (a) were selected to have at least 26 samples. Wildlands in (b) refers to any land other than Forest which is not dominated by human land uses, for example, grassland. Panels b−d include all variables.	Table 2. Representation of Space by Common Watershed Modelsa
  Wellen et al.（2015/2/18）による『Evaluation of the Current State of Distributed Watershed Nutrient Water Quality Modeling』から

【2013】

• 清水ほか（2013）による『郊外農業流域におけるリン流出量推定へのSWATモデルの適用可能性』から
  

  �V．SWATモデルの構造 　1．流量の推定 　　1）地表面流出 ・SWATモデルは、Hydrological Response Unit（HRU）と呼ばれる、土壌の種類や土地利用、地形勾配の組み合わせによって細かく分類されたグリッ ドの集合体によって流域を表現しており、それぞれ のグリッド内において水収支や物質収支解析を行い河川へと流出するように計算する。 ・グリッド内で発生する流量の計算には1950年代に米国農務省土壌保 全局（Soil Conservation Service; SCS）によって開発されたCurve Number method（SCS-CN）流出式が使用されている。 ・SWATモデルは改良合理式法 （modified rational method）によってピーク流量を計算する。 　　2）蒸発散 ・SWATモデルには最大蒸発散量を推定するためのPenman-Monteith法（Monteith, 1965）、Hargreaves and Samani法（Hargreaves et al., 1985）および Priestley-Taylor法（Priestley and Taylor, 1972）の3つの式が選択できる。 　　3） 浸透 ・土壌の種類別に鉛直方向に最大10層までの土壌層を設定し、各土壌層内に、土壌層厚、飽和透水係数、 圃場容水量、土壌浸食係数（USLEK）および粘土・砂・シルト・礫の重量比の含有率等のパラメー タを設定する。 　　4） 側方浸透流 ・ SWATモデルでは側方浸透流をSloan et al.（1983）によって開発されSloan and Moore（1984）によってまとめられたキネマティックストレージモデ ルを用いて計算している。 　3．河道内モデル ・SWATモデルは河道追跡モデルとして集中型Kinematic Wave法であるMuskingum River Routing法 （McCarthy, 1938）もしくはVariable Storage Routing 法（Williams, 1969）のどちらかを選択することが可能である。
  図−9 推定および実測累積流量と推定誤差 Fig. 9 Cumulative discharge and error of estimated discharge.	図−10 生活排水を考慮した場合としなかった場合のDIP濃度の推定値 Fig. 10 Estimated DIP concentration.
  清水ほか（2013）による『郊外農業流域におけるリン流出量推定へのSWATモデルの適用可能性』から

【2012】

• Arnold et al.（2012）による『SWAT: Model Use, Calibration, and Validation』から
  

  Figure 1. Schematic of SWAT development history and model adaptations (adapted from Gassman et al., 2007).	Figure 2. Example SWAT manual calibration flowchart (from Engel et al., 2007; adapted from Santhi et al., 2001).
  Table 1. Calibration parameters reported in 64 selected SWAT watershed studies.[a] Numbers in parentheses are the number of times the parameter was used in calibration. Definitions of variables are found in the SWAT user manual (http://swatmodel.tamu.edu/documentation).
  Arnold et al.（2012）による『SWAT: Model Use, Calibration, and Validation』から

【2010】

• van Griensven（2010？）による『Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)』から
  

  SWAT ・Developed by Jeff Arnold at USDA/ARS Temple, Texas, USA ・GIS interface (ArcView): DEM, Landuse, Soils maps ・Open sources ・User and developers community ・swatmodel.tamus.edu What are the objectives of SWAT ・Simulation of processes at land and water phase ・Spatially distributed (different scales) ・Semi physically based / empirical approaches ・Simulation of changes (climate, land use, management etc.) ・Water quantities, incl. different runoff components ・Water quality: Nutrients, Sediments, Pesticides, Bacteria, (algae and oxygen), etc. Interface ・GRASS (open sources GIS) ・Mapwindow (open sources GIS) ・AVSwat-X (ArcView) ・ArcSWAT (ArcGIS) Structure ・Basin ・Subbasins (based on DEM) Weather, Routing ・Hydrological Response Units（HRU）=Combination of soil type and land use properties HRU Processes ・Hydrology ・Erosion ・Plant Growth ・Nutrient Cycling ・Pesticide Dynamics ・Agricultural Management
  van Griensven（2010？）による『Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)』から

【2007】

• Gassman et al.（2007）による『The Soil and Water Assessment Tool: Historical Development, Applications, and Future Research Direction』から
  

  Figure 1. Schematic of SWAT developmental history, including selected SWAT adaptations.	Table 1. Overview of major application categories of SWAT studies reported in the literature.[a]
  Table 4. Proposed key parameters to adjust for accounting of different conservation practice effects in SWAT (source: Arabi et al., 2007a).
  Gassman et al.（2007）による『The Soil and Water Assessment Tool: Historical Development, Applications, and Future Research Direction』から

【2003】

• 和田ほか（2003）による〔『物質循環と水資源−水系を中心として』（28p）から〕【見る→】

【2000】

• 茅野（2000）による『生物系廃棄物リサイクルの現状と課題』から　　
  

  表２　生物系廃棄物の発生量及び成分含有量（推計）

  種　　類	発　生　量 （万トン）	近年の増減傾向	成分含有量（万トン）
  			窒　素	リン酸	加　里
  わら類	1,172	減少（米麦収穫量減少）	6.9	2.4	11.7
  もみがら	232	減少（米収穫量減少）	1.4	0.5	1.2
  家畜ふん尿	9,430	減少（家畜飼養頭数減）	74.9	27.4	51.9
  畜産物残さ	167	減少（と畜頭数減）	8.4	11.9	6.2
  樹皮（バーク）	95	減少（材生産・輸入減）	0.5	0.1	0.3
  おがくず	50	同　上	0.1	0.0	0.1
  木くず	402	同　上	0.6	0.1	0.6
  動植物性残さ	248		1.0	0.4	0.4
  食品産業汚泥	1,504		5.3	3.0	0.6
  建設発生木材	632	減　少	1.0	0.2	0.9
  生ごみ（家庭、事業系）	2,028	横ばい	8.0	3.0	3.2
  木竹類	247	増加（都市緑化）	1.9	0.5	0.9
  下水汚泥	8,550	増加（施設整備進展）	8.9	9.2	0.6
  し尿	1,995	減少（下水等の整備）	12.0	2.0	6.0
  浄化槽汚泥	1,359	増加（施設整備）	1.4	1.5	0.1
  農業集落排水汚泥	32	同　上	0.0	0.0	0.0
  合　　　計	28,143		132.1	62.1	84.6