『Abstract
Environmental sensor Networks (ESNs) facilitate the study of
fundamental processes and the development of hazard response systems.
They have evolved from passive logging systems that require manual
downloading, into ‘intelligent’ sensor networks that comprise
a network of automatic sensor nodes and communications systems
which actively communicate their data to a Sensor Network Server
(SNS) where these data can be integrated with other environmental
datasets. The sensor nodes can be fixed or mobile and range in
scale appropriate to the environment being sensed. ESNs range
in scale and function and we have reviewed over 50 representative
examples. Large Scale Single Function Networks tend to
use large single purpose nodes to cover a wide geographical area.
Localised Multifunction Sensor Networks typically monitor
a small area in more detail, often with wireless adhoc systems.
Biosensor Networks use emerging biotechnologies to monitor
environmental processes as well as developing proxies for immediate
use. In the future, sensor networks will integrate these three
elements (Heterogeneous Sensor Networks ). The communications
system and data storage and integration (cyberinfrastructure)
aspects of ESNs are discussed, along with current challenges which
need to be addressed. We argue that Environmental Sensor Networks
will become a standard research tool for future Earth System and
environmental Science. Not only do they provide a ‘virtual’ connection
with the environment, they allow new field and conceptual approaches
to the study of environmental processes to be developed. We suggest
that although technological advances have facilitated these changes,
it is vital that Earth Systems and Environmental Scientists utilise
the,.
Keywords: wireless sensor networks; environmental monitoring;
cyberinfrastructure』
1. Introduction
2. The evolution from logging to Environmental Sensor Networks
3. What is an Environmental Sensor Network?
4. Sensor nodes
5. Examples of Environmental Sensor Networks
5.1. Large Scale Single Function Networks
5.2. Localised Multifunction Sensor Networks
5.3. Biosensor Networks
5.4. Heterogeneous Sensor Network
6. Communications
7. Cyberinfrastructure
8. Challenges for Environmental Sensor Networks
9. The future of environmental monitoring within Earth system
science
Acknowledgements
References
|
|
|
|
|
| Global Seismographic Network http://www.iris.edu | Large Scale Single Function Network - seismology | Seismometer accelerometer | Global |
| The Georgia Automated Environmental Monitoring Network http://www.georgiaweather.net/ | Large Scale Single Function Network - weather | Meteorological data | Regional |
| Web based hot spot modelling using GEOS http://goes.higp.hawaii.edu/ | Large Scale Single Function Network - remote sensing | Multispectral imaging | Pacific rim and USA |
| Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/dart.shtml | Large Scale Single Function Network - tsunamis monitoring | Oceanographic and meteorological data + bottom pressure recorders | |
|
SNOTEL http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ snotel/snotel-info.html |
Large Scale Single Function Network - snow depth sensing | Snow thickness | Regional |
|
National Science Foundation Polar UV Monitoring Network http://www.biospherical.com/NSF/ default.asp |
Large Scale Single Function Network - UV monitoring | UV Polar | Polar regions |
| The Pacific Northwest Seismograph Network http://www.pnsn.org/welcome.html | Large Scale Single Function Network - Seismology | Seismic sensors | Regional |
| 5 seismic projects http://www.cens.ucla.edu | Large Scale Single Function Network - seismology | Seismology | 100 m -regional |
|
Tropical Atmosphere Ocean Project http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/ index.shtml |
Large Scale Single Function Network - oceanography | Oceanographic and meteorological data | |
|
King County Lake Data http://dnr.metrokc.gov/wlr/waterres/ lakedata/index.htm |
Localised Multifunction Network - water quality | Weather, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll | Local |
| Onondaga Lake Improvement Programme http://waterontheweb.org/data/onondaga/ | Localised Multifunction Network - water quality | Temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, salinity | Local |
| Olentangy River Wetland Research Park http://swamp.ag.ohio-state.edu/ | Localised Multifunction Network - water quality | Weather, hydrodynamic sensors, webcam | Local |
| Ipswich-Parker Suburban WATershed Channel http://www.ipswatch.sr.unh.edu/index.html | Localised Multifunction Network - water quality | River flow, quality, precipitation, estuarine depth and quality, weather | Regional |
| 8+ habitat sensing projects http://www.cens.ucla.edu | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Microclimate, video camera, with soil respiration (CO2), nutrient flux (N, P, etc.) | 100 m -1 km |
| Great Duck Island http://www.greatduckisland.net/ | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Temperature, light, humidity | > 100 m |
| Huntington Gardens http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, soil temperature and soil moisture | 1 km |
| Tucson Flooding Project http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Ambient air temperature, relative humidity, and light level. soil moisture | 1 km |
| Sevilleta, New Mexico http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, as well as soil temperature and moisture | 1 km |
| Antarctica (analogue for Mars) http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Two soil temperature sensors in addition to air temperature, humidity, and light sensors | 2 km |
| Lancaster Farms http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, soil temperature and soil moisture | 2 km |
| Malheur Experiment Station http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, soil temperature and soil moisture | 100 m |
| Sierra Nevada Mountains, California http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - snowfall | Snow accumulation and melting | |
| Kennedy Space Center Launch Pad http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, soil temperature and soil moisture | 100 m |
| Cal Poly Pomona, College of Agriculture http://www.sensorwaresystems.com | Localised Multifunction Network - habitat monitoring | Light levels, air temperature and humidity, soil temperature and soil moisture | 100 m |
|
XYZ On A Chip http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/ briefs-wirelessxyz.htm |
Localised Multifunction Network - HVAC monitoring | Airflow measurement and indoor temperature | Building scale |
| WAVIS (wave-current informationsystem) http://www.wavcis.lsu.edu/aboutus.asp | Localised Multifunction Network - Oceanography | Wave height, period, direction of propagation, water level, surge, near surface current speed and direction and meteorological conditions, webcam | Regional |
| MySound http://www.mysound.uconn.edu/index.html | Localised Multifunction Network - oceanography | Water quality, weather, wave data, webcam | Regional |
| Chesapeake Bay Observatory System http://www.cbos.org | Localised Multifunction Network - oceanography | Weather, salinity, wave speed, wave direction and conductivity | Regional |
| SECOAS http://envisense.org/secoas.htm | Localised Multifunction Network - ocean conditions | Location, wave heights | 1 km |
| Argus (15 installed worldwide) http://www.planetargus.com/ | Localised Multifunction Network - coastal erosion | Video camera 5 cameras | 1 km |
| Floodnet http://envisense.org/floodnet/floodnet.htm | Localised Multifunction Network - flood warning | Water depth | 1 km |
| CORIE http://www.ccalmr.ogi.edu/CORIE/ | Localised Multifunction Network - fluvial observations and flood warning | Water temperature, conductivity, pressure, velocity, acoustic backscatter, wind speed and direction, air temperature and relative humidity, longwave and shortwave radiation | 20 km |
| NWIS web water data http://water.usgs.gov/ | Localised Multifunction Network - flood warning | Surface water, ground water and water quality | Regional |
|
Volcan Tungurahua Project http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~werner/projects/ volcano/ |
Localised Multifunction Network - volcanic processes | Wireless infrasonic sensor array | > 10 km |
| GlacsWeb http://www.glacsweb.org | Localised Multifunction Network - glacial processes | Weather, location, tilt, pressure, temperature | > 100 m |
| Smart Gas-MIR space station air quality Persaud et al., 1999 | Biosensor Network - air quality | 20 element conducting polymer array | > 100 m |
| Ferrera Air Pollution Monitoring Carotta et al., 2001 | Biosensor Network - air quality | CO, NO, NO2, O3 | > 100 m |
| Cranfield University Sewage Works Bourgeois et al., 2003a and Bourgeois et al., 2003b | Biosensor Network - water contaminants | 12 conducting polymer sensors | > 100 m |
| 4 contaminant transport monitoring projects http://www.cens.ucla.edu | Biosensor Network - soil and water contaminants | Soil moisture and soil CO2 sensors, nitrate flux | 100 m |
| 2 marine microorganisms projects http://www.cens.ucla.edu | Biosensor Network - monitoring algae | Immuno-based flow cytometry | Autonomous mobile robots |
| AWACSS http://barolo.ipc.uni-tuebingen.de/awacss/ | Biosensor Network - monitoring water contaminants | Estrogens and progestogens in sediment and water | > 100 m |
| UK Environmental Change Network http://www.ecn.ac.uk/ | Heterogeneous Network | Weather, land and lake surface water discharge, camera | Regional |
| National Environmental Monitoring Initiative http://www.epa.gov/cludygxb/html/choices.htm | Heterogeneous Network - inventory of monitoring sites | Wide range | Regional |
| National Ecological Observatory Network http://www.neoninc.org/ | Heterogeneous Network | Ecological monitoring | National |
| The Global Earth Observation System GEOSS http://www.noaa.gov/eos.html | Heterogeneous Network | Wide range | Global |
| SensorNet http://www.sensornet.gov/ | Heterogeneous Network - Incident management system | Wide range | National |
| Coastal Ocean Observation Laboratory http://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/LEO/LEO15.html | Heterogeneous Network | Satellites, aircrafts, ships, fixed/relocatable moorings, and autonomous underwater vehicles used to measure a wide range of oceanographic properties | Local |
| NEPTUNE Project http://www.neptune.washington.edu/ | Heterogeneous Network | Wired and wireless nodes + multipurpose robotic underwater vehicles to measure wide range of oceanographic properties | Regional |
| Orion Project, Scripps Institution of Oceanography http://orion.lookingtosea.ucsd.edu/ | Heterogeneous Network | Oceanographic monitoring | Global |