OF 2005-1294-D. Geology
and Nonfuel Mineral Deposits of Europe and northern Central Asia（182p）
Contents
Contents.......................................................................................................................................................................iii
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................1
Purpose of Report..........................................................................................................................................................1
Importance of the Study Area for Mineral Resources............................................................................................2
Region Covered by Report...........................................................................................................................................3
Overview of Geologic and Tectonic History.................................................................................3
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................3
Greenland........................................................................................................................................................................5
Iceland.............................................................................................................................................................................6
Europe..............................................................................................................................................................................7
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................7
Major Geologic and Tectonic Provinces................................................................................................................7
Major Sedimentary Basins.......................................................................................................................................8
Urals Mountains.............................................................................................................................................................8
Siberia and the Russian Far East................................................................................................................................8
Northern Central Asia...................................................................................................................................................9
Altay-Sayan Mountains of Northern Central Asia................................................................................................9
Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins...............................................................................................................9
Caucasus Mountains................................................................................................................................................9
Principal Commodities and Mineral Deposits...........................................................................10
Metals...........................................................................................................................................................................10
Aluminum...................................................................................................................................................................11
Antimony....................................................................................................................................................................12
Arsenic.......................................................................................................................................................................13
Chromium..................................................................................................................................................................13
Cobalt.........................................................................................................................................................................15
Copper........................................................................................................................................................................15
Gold.............................................................................................................................................................................18
Indium.........................................................................................................................................................................20
Iron ore......................................................................................................................................................................21
Lead and Zinc...........................................................................................................................................................22
Manganese...............................................................................................................................................................27
Mercury.....................................................................................................................................................................28
Molybdenum.............................................................................................................................................................29
Nickel.........................................................................................................................................................................30
Platinum-Group Elements.......................................................................................................................................31
Rare-Earth Metals, including Niobium and Tantalum........................................................................................33
Silver...........................................................................................................................................................................34
Tin...............................................................................................................................................................................36
Titanium.....................................................................................................................................................................37
Tungsten....................................................................................................................................................................39
Industrial Minerals....................................................................................................................................................41
Asbestos....................................................................................................................................................................41
Barite..........................................................................................................................................................................42
Boron..........................................................................................................................................................................42
Clay (Kaolin, Bentonite, and Fuller’s Earth)..........................................................................................................43
Diamond (industrial)................................................................................................................................................44
Diatomite...................................................................................................................................................................46
Feldspar.....................................................................................................................................................................46
Fluorspar....................................................................................................................................................................47
Gemstones................................................................................................................................................................48
Graphite.....................................................................................................................................................................48
Gypsum......................................................................................................................................................................49
Halite (salt)................................................................................................................................................................50
Kyanite.......................................................................................................................................................................51
Limestone and other carbonate rocks..................................................................................................................52
Lithium........................................................................................................................................................................53
Magnesium...............................................................................................................................................................53
Perlite.........................................................................................................................................................................54
Phosphate.................................................................................................................................................................55
Potash (Potassium)..................................................................................................................................................56
Pumice.......................................................................................................................................................................57
Silicon.........................................................................................................................................................................57
Strontium...................................................................................................................................................................58
Sulfur..........................................................................................................................................................................59
Summaries of Recent Regional Mineral Exploration and Major
Active Mines...60
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................60
Factors Affecting Mineral Exploration.....................................................................................................................60
Data on Recent Mining...............................................................................................................................................62
Mineral Exploration and Recent Mining in Greenland...........................................................................................62
Mineral Exploration and Recent Mining in Europe.................................................................................................63
Albania.......................................................................................................................................................................63
Austria........................................................................................................................................................................63
Belgium......................................................................................................................................................................63
Bosnia and Herzegovina.........................................................................................................................................64
Bulgaria.....................................................................................................................................................................64
Croatia........................................................................................................................................................................64
Czech Republic.........................................................................................................................................................64
Denmark....................................................................................................................................................................64
Estonia.......................................................................................................................................................................65
Finland........................................................................................................................................................................65
France........................................................................................................................................................................65
Germany....................................................................................................................................................................65
Greece.......................................................................................................................................................................65
Hungary.....................................................................................................................................................................66
Iceland.......................................................................................................................................................................66
Ireland........................................................................................................................................................................66
Italy.............................................................................................................................................................................67
Latvia..........................................................................................................................................................................67
Lithuania....................................................................................................................................................................67
Luxembourg..............................................................................................................................................................67
Macedonia................................................................................................................................................................67
Malta..........................................................................................................................................................................67
Moldova.....................................................................................................................................................................67
Netherlands..............................................................................................................................................................68
Norway......................................................................................................................................................................68
Poland........................................................................................................................................................................68
Portugal.....................................................................................................................................................................68
Romania.....................................................................................................................................................................69
Serbia and Montenegro..........................................................................................................................................69
Slovakia.....................................................................................................................................................................69
Slovenia.....................................................................................................................................................................69
Spain...........................................................................................................................................................................69
Sweden......................................................................................................................................................................70
Switzerland...............................................................................................................................................................70
United Kingdom........................................................................................................................................................70
Mineral Exploration and Recent Mining in Russia, Belarus, and
Ukraine.................................................71
Exploration in Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine........................................................................................................71
Mining in Belarus.....................................................................................................................................................72
Mining in Ukraine.....................................................................................................................................................72
Mining in Russia - Overview..................................................................................................................................72
Mineral Exploration and Recent Mining in Northern Central Asia..............................................................76
Armenia.....................................................................................................................................................................76
Azerbaijan.................................................................................................................................................................76
Georgia......................................................................................................................................................................76
Kazakhstan................................................................................................................................................................77
Kyrgyzstan.................................................................................................................................................................77
Tajikistan...................................................................................................................................................................77
Turkmenistan............................................................................................................................................................78
Uzbekistan.................................................................................................................................................................78
Potential for Undiscovered Mineral Resources......................................................................79
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................79
Greenland......................................................................................................................................................................80
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................80
Areas Likely to Host Undiscovered Mineral Deposits.......................................................................................80
Iceland...........................................................................................................................................................................81
Europe............................................................................................................................................................................81
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................81
Ireland........................................................................................................................................................................82
United Kingdom........................................................................................................................................................82
Europe........................................................................................................................................................................82
Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.................................................................................................................................83
Ukraine and Belarus................................................................................................................................................83
Russia.........................................................................................................................................................................84
Northern Central Asia..............................................................................................................................................87
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................................87
Altay Mountains.......................................................................................................................................................87
Southern Urals Mountains.....................................................................................................................................88
Mesozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins.............................................................................................................88
Caucasus Mountains..............................................................................................................................................88
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................................89
References Cited................................................................................................................................................89
Tables
Table 1. Principal nonfuel mineral commodities produced in Greenland,
Europe and Northern Central Asia. Adapted from U.S. Geological
Survey Minerals Yearbook, v. III. . Area Reports: International,
U.S. Geological Survey (2002), U.S. Geological Survey (2004),
and from Table 2 (this report). Commodities in bold indicate countries
that are among major current world producers according to U.S.
Geological Survey (2004)...102
Table 2. A. Mineral deposit name, location, principal commodities,
type, and reference for the major metallic mineral deposits in
Greenland, Europe, and Northern Central Asia...104
B. Mineral deposit name, location, principal commodities, type,
and reference for the major non-metallic mineral deposits in Greenland,
Europe, and Northern Central Asia...129
Table 3. Mineral deposit types, processes of formations, and examples...........................................................137
Table 4. Bauxite - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...12
Table 5. Antimony - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...12
Table 6. Arsenic - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...13
Table 7. Chromium - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...14
Table 8. Cobalt - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...15
Table 9. Copper - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
reserve base, and resource base for the study area and for the
leading global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004; Singer,
1995)...16
Table 10. Gold - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...18
Table 11. Indium - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...21
Table 12. Iron ore - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...21
Table 13. Lead - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...23
Table 14. Zinc - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...23
Table 15. Manganese - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...27
Table 16. Manganese resources in the ocean (U.S. Geological Survey,
2004)....................................................28
Table 17. Mercury - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...29
Table 18. Molybdenum - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...29
Table 19. Nickel - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...30
Table 20. Platinum-group elements - data for 2003 for world mine
production, reserves, and reserve base for the study area and
for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...32
Table 21. Rare-earth metals - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (index mundi, 2004; U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...33
Table 22. Silver - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...35
Table 23. Tin - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...37
Table 24. Titanium mineral concentrate (ilmenite) - data for 2003
for world mine production, reserves, and reserve base for the
study area and for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological
Survey, 2005)...38
Table 25. Titanium mineral concentrate (rutile) - data for 2003
for world mine production, reserves, and reserve base for the
study area and for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological
Survey, 2005)...38
Table 26. Tungsten - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...40
Table 27. Asbestos - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...41
Table 28. Barite - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...42
Table 29. Boron - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...43
Table 30. Kaolin - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...44
Table 31. Bentonite - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...44
Table 32. Diamond (industrial) - data for 2003 for world mine
production, reserves, and reserve base for the study area and
for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2005)...45
Table 33. Diatomite - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...46
Table 34. Feldspar - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...47
Table 35. Fluorspar - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...48
Table 36. Graphite - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...49
Table 37. Gypsum - proportion data for 2003 for world mine production
for the study area and for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological
Survey, 2004)...50
Table 38. Halite (salt) - proportion data for 2003 for world mine
production for the study area and for the leading global producer
(U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...51
Table 39. Kyanite - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...52
Table 40. Lime and limestone - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...52
Table 41. Lithium - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...53
Table 42. Magnesite - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...54
Table 43. Perlite - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...55
Table 44. Phosphate rock - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...55
Table 45. Potassium - data for 2003 for world mine production,
reserves, and reserve base for the study area and for the leading
global producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...56
Table 46. Pumice - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...57
Table 47. Silicon - data for 2003 for world mine production, reserves,
and reserve base for the study area and for the leading global
producer (U.S. Geological Survey, 2004)...58
Table 48. Strontium - data for 2003 for world mine production
for the study area and for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological
Survey, 2004)...58
Table 49. Sulfur - data for 2003 for world mine production for
the study area and for the leading global producer (U.S. Geological
Survey, 2004)...60
Figures
Figure 1. Areas of the regional reports. The area of this report
is in gray..........................................................138
Figure 2. Schematic political boundary map showing location of
countries covered in this report..............139
Figure 3. Digital elevation image of the study area with names
of major geographic features.....................140
Figure 4. Principal layers of the Earth........................................................................................................................141
Figure 5. Diagram illustrating the plate tectonic setting in which
mineral deposits are formed....................142
Figure 6. Generalized regional geologic base map of the study
area showing age and distribution of major rock units....143
Figure 7 (A . E). Distribution of principal nonfuel mineral deposits
in the study area for metallic commodities...144
Figure 8 (A . D). Distribution of principal nonfuel mineral deposits
in the study area for industrial (non-metallic) commodities...149
Figure 9. Schematic laterite profile showing the progression of
weathering effects on rock........................153
Figure 10. Schematic cross section illustrating the characteristic
features of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits...154
Figure 11. Schematic east-west longitudional cross section of
Talnakh intrusion at Norilsk-Talnakh copper-nickel-PGE (platinum
group elements) sulfide deposit, northern Siberia, Russia ...155
Figure 12. Cross section of a stratovolcano showing the relative
locations of porphyry copper deposits, lead and zinc veins, gold-silver
veins, and sulfur deposits...156
Figure 13. Schematic geologic map of the Dukat gold-silver epithermal
vein deposit, Russian Northeast ...157
Figure 14. Schematic cross section of Kuperscheifer-type sediment-hosted
copper deposit.......................158
Figure 15. Schematic cross section of the Keretti Mine, Outokumpu,
Finland..................................................159
Figure 16. Schematic geological map (A) and geological section
(B) of the world-class Kalmakyr copper deposit related to granitic
intrusions (porphyry copper deposit), Uzbekistan...160
Figure 17. Schematic cross section of the Dzhezkazgan sediment-hosted
copper deposit in Kazakhstan...161
Figure 18. Geological section across the eastern part of the Murantau
gold district, Uzbekistan, along the profile of deep drill holes
...162
Figure 19. Schematic geologic map of the Sukhoy Log black-shale-hosted
gold deposit, southern Siberia, Russia ...163
Figure 20. Formation of placer gold deposikts and related placer
titanium and platinum-group element (so-called heavy mineral)
deposits...164
Figure 21. Schematic geologic map of the Pobeda ironstone deposit,
Russian Northeast.............................165
Figure 22. Schematic diagram of an oceanic extensional tectonic
(rift) setting where plates are moving away from each other ...166
Figure 23. Schematic cross section illustrating the characteristic
features of sedimentary exhalative lead and zinc deposits ...167
Figure 24. Schematic reconstructed north-south cross section of
the Skaergaard intrusion showing the approximate location of the
Platinova Reef...168
Figure 25. Schematic geologic map of the Kondyor mafic-ultramafic
intrusion, central part of Russian Far East ...169
Figure 26. Schematic geologic map of the Gornoye Ozero carbonatite-related
rare-earth metal deposit, Russian Northeast ...170
Figure 27. Schematic geologic map of Dalnegorsk boron skarn deposit
in Russian Southeast.....................171
Figure 28. Schematic cross section illustrating model for formation
of a diamond kimberlite pipe..............172
Figure 29. Schematic cross section illustrating model for formation
of sedimentary potash deposits.........173
Abstract
This report summarizes the geology and nonfuel mineral resources
of Greenland, Europe, Russia, and Northern Central Asia and is
a preliminary part of a major U.S. Geological Survey study called
the Global Mineral Resource Assessment Project. This report is
one of a series of regional reports covering the world and provides
basic data on the identified resources and geologic setting, together
with a brief appraisal of the potential for undiscovered mineral
resources. The data in the regional report are derived from published
information. An important source of data on production statistics,
economic factors that affect the mineral industries, and historical
information, is available in U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) publications
Minerals Yearbook and the annual Mineral Commodity Summaries (available
at http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals).
In terms of production of metallic commodities and industrial
minerals in recent years (U.S. Geological Survey, 2003, 2004,
2005), Greenland, the countries comprising Europe and Northern
Central Asia, and Russia were major or moderate producers of aluminum,
antimony, arsenic, asbestos, barite, bentonite boron, chromium,
cobalt, copper, diamond, diatomite, feldspar, fluorspar, gemstones,
gold, graphite, gypsum indium, iron ore, iron ore, kaolin, kyanite,
lead, lithium, magnesium, mercury, mica (sheet), molybdenum, nickel,
perlite, phosphate, platinum-group metals, potash, pumice, rare-earth
metals, salt, silicon, silver, sulfur, tin, titanium, and zinc.
A recurrent theme of this report is that mineral resources are
associated with large-scale geologic processes that reoccur in
time and space. The geologic distribution of mineral resources
is intimately related to the geologic history of host rocks and
structures. Increased knowledge about the geologic fabric around
deposits and the processes that control the regional and local
distribution of mineral resources will lead to improvement in
predicting the location of new deposits.
Figure 6. Generalized regional geologic base map of
the study area showing age and distribution of majo rock units.
Adapted from Geological Survey of Canada (1995). Refer to figure
3 for major geographic names
Figure 7A. Distribution of principal mines and deposits
producing metallic commodities in the study area for which
location data are publicly available. Major metallic mines and
deposits named in text are displayed by principal commodity in
table 2A. Additional commodity data displayed in table 2A.
Figure 7B. Distribution of principal mines and deposits
producing metallic commodities in the study area for which
location data are publicly available. Major metallic mines and
deposits named in text are displayed by principal commodity in
table 2A. Additional commodity data displayed in table 2A.
Figure 7C. Distribution of principal mines and deposits
producing metallic commodities in the study area for which
location data are publicly available. Major metallic mines and
deposits named in text are displayed by principal commodity in
table 2A. Additional commodity data displayed in table 2A.
Figure 7D. Distribution of principal mines and deposits
producing metallic commodities in the study area for which
location data are publicly available. Major metallic mines and
deposits named in text are displayed by principal commodity in
table 2A. Additional commodity data displayed in table 2A.
Figure 7E. Distribution of principal mines and deposits
producing metallic commodities in the study area for which
location data are publicly
available. Major metallic mines and deposits named in text are
displayed by principal commodity in table 2A. Additional commodity
data displayed in
table 2A.
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